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EpoxyDuino

AUnit Tests

This project contains a small (but often effective) implementation of the Arduino programming framework for Linux, MacOS, FreeBSD (experimental) and potentially other POSIX-like systems. Originally, it was created to allow AUnit unit tests to be compiled and run on a desktop class machine, instead of running on the embedded microcontroller. As more Arduino functionality was added, I found it useful for doing certain types of application development on my Linux laptop, especially the parts that were more algorithmic instead of hardware dependent. EpoxyDuino can be effectively used in Continuous Integration (CI) pipeline (like GitHub Actions) for automatically validating that a library or application compiles without errors.

The build process uses GNU Make. A simple Makefile needs to be created inside the sketch folder. For example, if the sketch is SampleTest/SampleTest.ino, then the makefile should be SampleTest/Makefile. The sketch is compiled with just a make command. It produces an executable with a .out extension, for example, SampleTest.out.

The Serial port object sends the output to the STDOUT and reads from the STDIN of the Unix host environment. Most other hardware dependent features (e.g. I2C, SPI, GPIO) are stubbed out (defined but don't do anything) to allow the Arduino programs to compile. Mock versions of various libraries are also provided:

These mock libraries may be sufficient for a CI pipeline.

For actual application development, I have started to build a set of libraries within EpoxyDuino which emulate the versions that run the actual hardware:

If your program has limited hardware dependencies so that it is conceptually portable to a vanilla Unix environment, EpoxyDuino may work well for you.

Running an Arduino program natively on a desktop-class machine has some advantages:

  • The development cycle can be lot faster because the compilers on the desktop machines are a lot faster, and we also avoid the upload and flash process to the microcontroller.
  • The desktop machine can run unit tests which require too much flash or too much memory to fit inside an embedded microcontroller.
  • It may help you write platform-independent code, because if it runs under EpoxyDuino, it has a good chance of running on most Arduino-compatible platforms.

The disadvantages are:

  • Only a subset of Arduino functions are supported (see below).
  • Many 3rd party libraries will not compile under EpoxyDuino.
  • There may be compiler differences between the desktop and the embedded environments (e.g. 16-bit int versus 32-bit int, or 32-bit long versus 64-bit long).

Version: 1.6.0 (2024-07-25)

Changelog: See CHANGELOG.md

Table of Contents

Installation

You need to grab the sources directly from GitHub. This project is not an Arduino library so it is not available through the Arduino Library Manager in the Arduino IDE.

The location of the EpoxyDuino directory can be arbitrary, but a convenient location might be the same ./libraries/ directory used by the Arduino IDE to store other Arduino libraries:

$ cd {sketchbook_directory}/libraries
$ git clone https://github.com/bxparks/EpoxyDuino.git

This will create a directory called {sketchbook_directory}/libraries/EpoxyDuino, and put you on the default develop branch.

You can be slightly conservative and use the latest stable release on the master branch:

$ cd {sketchbook_directory}/libraries/EpoxyDuino
$ git checkout master

You can go to a specific release by checking out the corresponding tag, for example v1.2.0:

$ git checkout v1.2.0

Dependencies

The core of EpoxyDuino depends on:

  • a C++ compiler (g++ or clang++)
  • GNU Make (usually make but sometimes gmake)

These are normally installed on the host OS by default.

The example and test code under ./tests/, ./examples/, ./libraries/*/tests/, and ./libraries/*/examples/ depend on:

Usage

Makefile

The minimal Makefile has 3 lines:

APP_NAME := {name of project}
ARDUINO_LIBS := {list of dependent Arduino libraries}
include {path/to/EpoxyDuino.mk}

For example, the examples/BlinkSOS project contains this Makefile:

APP_NAME := BlinkSOS
ARDUINO_LIBS :=
include ../../../EpoxyDuino/EpoxyDuino.mk

To build the program, just run make:

$ cd examples/BlinkSOS
$ make clean
$ make

The executable will be created with a .out extension. To run it, type one of the following:

$ ./BlinkSOS.out
$ make run

If you run :make run command inside the vim editor, it knows how to parse the file and line number contained in the assertion messages generated by AUnit. The vim editor will jump directly to the file and line where the assertion failure occurred. See https://vimhelp.org/quickfix.txt.html for information on the quickfix feature and the errorformat format that parses the GNU Make output.

The output that would normally be printed on the Serial on an Arduino board will be sent to the STDOUT of the Linux, MacOS, or FreeBSD terminal. The output should be identical to what would be shown on the serial port of the Arduino controller.

Additional Arduino Libraries

If the Arduino program depends on additional Arduino libraries, they must be specified in the Makefile using the ARDUINO_LIBS parameter. For example, the following includes the AUnit, AceButton, and AceTime libraries if they are installed at the same directory level as EpoxyDuino:

APP_NAME := SampleTest
ARDUINO_LIBS := AUnit AceButton AceTime
include ../../EpoxyDuino/EpoxyDuino.mk

The libraries are referred to using their base directory name (e.g. AceButton, or AceTime) not their full path. By default, the EpoxyDuino.mk file will look for these additional libraries at the following locations:

  • EPOXY_DUINO_DIR/../ - in other words, siblings to the EpoxyDuino install directory (this assumes that EpoxyDuino was installed in the Arduino libraries directory as recommended above)
  • EPOXY_DUINO_DIR/libraries/ - additional libraries provided by the EpoxyDuino project itself
  • under each of the additional directories listed in ARDUINO_LIB_DIRS (see below)

Version v1.5 supports compiling and linking plain C files in the third-party libraries (defined by ARDUINO_LIBS) or in the application directory itself. The C files are assumed to be written in C11 and are compiled using the cc compiler. It may be possible to override the compiler flags by adding -std=c99 into the EXTRA_CFLAGS in the Makefile (which clobbers the default -std=c11) but this has not been tested.

Additional Arduino Library Locations

As explained above, EpoxyDuino normally assumes that the additional libraries are siblings to theEpoxyDuino/ directory or under the EpoxyDuino/libraries/ directory. If you need to import additional Arduino libraries, you need to tell EpoxyDuino where they are because Arduino libraries tend to be scattered among many different locations. These additional locations can be specified using the ARDUINO_LIB_DIRS variable. For example,

APP_NAME := SampleTest
arduino_ide_dir := ../../arduino-1.8.9
ARDUINO_LIBS := AUnit AceButton AceTime
ARDUINO_LIB_DIRS := \
	$(arduino_ide_dir)/portable/packages/arduino/hardware/avr/1.8.2/libraries \
	$(arduino_ide_dir)/libraries \
	$(arduino_ide_dir)/hardware/arduino/avr/libraries
include ../../EpoxyDuino/EpoxyDuino.mk

Each of the AUnit, AceButton and AceTime libraries will be searched in each of the 3 directories given in the ARDUINO_LIB_DIRS. (The arduino_ide_dir is a convenience temporary variable. It has no significance to EpoxyDuino.mk)

Difference from Arduino IDE

There are a number of differences compared to the programming environment provided by the Arduino IDE:

  • The *.ino file is treated like a normal *.cpp file. So it must have an #include <Arduino.h> include line at the top of the file. This is compatible with the Arduino IDE which automatically includes <Arduino.h>.
  • The Arduino IDE supports multiple ino files in the same directory. (I believe it simply concatenates them all into a single file.) EpoxyDuino supports only one ino file in a given directory.
  • The Arduino IDE automatically generates forward declarations for functions that appear after the global setup() and loop() methods. In a normal C++ file, these forward declarations must be created by hand. The other alternative is to move loop() and setup() functions to the end of the ino file.

Fortunately, the changes required to make an ino file compatible with EpoxyDuino are backwards compatible with the Arduino IDE. In other words, a program that compiles with EpoxyDuino will also compile under Ardunio IDE.

There are other substantial differences. The Arduino IDE supports multiple microcontroller board types, each using its own set of compiler tools and library locations. There is a complicated set of files and rules that determine how to find and use those tools and libraries. The EpoxyDuino tool does not use any of the configuration files used by the Arduino IDE. Sometimes, you can use the ARDUINO_LIB_DIRS to get around this limitations. However, when you start using ARDUINO_LIB_DIRS, you will often run into third party libraries using features which are not supported by the EpoxyDuino framework emulation layer.

Conditional Code

If you want to add code that takes effect only on EpoxyDuino, you can use the following macro:

#if defined(EPOXY_DUINO)
  ...
#endif

If you need to target a particular desktop OS, you can use the following:

Linux:

#if defined(__linux__)
  ...
#endif

MacOS:

#if defined(__APPLE__)
  ...
#endif

FreeBSD:

#if defined(__FreeBSD__)
  ...
#endif

Managing Multiple Makefiles

It is often convenient to create a parent Makefile that runs multiple targets in the Makefiles under the subdirectories. For example, most of my libraries have the following directory structure:

FooLibrary
|-- LICENSE
|-- README.md
|-- examples
|   |-- ExampleA
|   |   |-- ExampleA.ino
|   |   `-- Makefile
|   |-- ExampleB
|   |   |-- ExampleB.ino
|   |   `-- Makefile
|   |-- ...
|   |-- ExampleN
|   |   |-- ExampleN.ino
|   |   `-- Makefile
|   `-- Makefile
|-- library.properties
|-- src
|   |-- FooLibrary.h
|   `-- foolib
|       |-- file.h
|       `-- file.cpp
`-- tests
    |-- AxxTest
    |   |-- AxxTest.ino
    |   `-- Makefile
    |-- BxxTest
    |   |-- BxxTest.ino
    |   `-- Makefile
    |-- ...
    |-- MxxTest
    |   |-- MxxTest.ino
    |   `-- Makefile
    `-- Makefile

I often want to compile all of the examples , and run all the unit tests with a single command. There are multiple ways to do this, but the technique that I use is to create a parent Makefile in the examples/ and tests/ directories that recursively runs the targets of the subdirectories. In examples/Makefile, I create the following:

all:
	set -e; \
	for i in */Makefile; do \
		echo '==== Making:' $$(dirname $$i); \
		$(MAKE) -C $$(dirname $$i); \
	done

clean:
	set -e; \
	for i in */Makefile; do \
		echo '==== Cleaning:' $$(dirname $$i); \
		$(MAKE) -C $$(dirname $$i) clean; \
	done

In tests/Makefile, I create the following:

tests:
	set -e; \
	for i in *Test/Makefile; do \
		echo '==== Making:' $$(dirname $$i); \
		$(MAKE) -C $$(dirname $$i); \
	done

runtests:
	set -e; \
	for i in *Test/Makefile; do \
		echo '==== Running:' $$(dirname $$i); \
		$(MAKE) -C $$(dirname $$i) run; \
	done

clean:
	set -e; \
	for i in *Test/Makefile; do \
		echo '==== Cleaning:' $$(dirname $$i); \
		$(MAKE) -C $$(dirname $$i) clean; \
	done

To compile and run all the examples and unit tests, I do the following:

$ make -C examples clean
$ make -C tests clean

$ make -C examples all
$ make -C tests tests
$ make -C tests runtests | grep failed

If you run :make runtests inside the vim editor, it knows how to parse the diagnostic outputs generated by GNU Make (as it changes directories through the -C flag), and it knows how to parse the file and line number contained in the assertion messages generated by AUnit. The vim editor will jump directly to the file and line where the assertion failure occurred. See https://vimhelp.org/quickfix.txt.html for information on the quickfix feature and the errorformat format that parses the GNU Make output.

These parent Makefiles can also be used in Continuous Integration, as shown below.

Continuous Integration

You can use EpoxyDuino to run continuous integration tests or validations on the GitHub Actions infrastructure. The basic ubuntu-18.04 or ubuntu-20.04 docker image already contains the C++ compiler and make binary. You don't need to install the Arduino IDE or the Arduino CLI. You need:

  • EpoxyDuino,
  • your project that you want to test,
  • any additional Arduino libraries that you use.

Take a look at some of my GitHub Actions YAML config files:

Advanced Usage

Alternate C++ Compiler

Normally the C++ compiler on Linux is g++. If you have clang++ installed you can use that instead by specifying the CXX makefile variable:

$ make CXX=clang++

This tells make to set the CXX variable to clang++ within the context of EpoxyDuino.mk which causes clang++ to be used over the default g++.

If you have C files in your library or application, you can use to following to compile the C files using clang instead of cc (which is the same as gcc on Linux):

$ make CXX=clang++ CC=clang

One reason to use clang++ instead of g++ is that the clang++ compiler will sometimes catch a different set of programming errors.

Additional Cpp Flags

You can pass additional flags to the C preprocessor through the EXTRA_CPPFLAGS variable, like this:

$ make EXTRA_CPPFLAGS='-D DEBUG=2'

Additional Compiler Flags

You can pass additional flags to the C++ compiler through the EXTRA_CXXFLAGS variable, like this:

$ make EXTRA_CXXFLAGS='-g'

or

$ make EXTRA_CXXFLAGS='-g' EXTRA_CFLAGS='-g'

Additional Clean Up

The make clean rule is predefined to remove all of the intermediate *.o files and GENERATED files that the EpoxyDuino.mk file knows about. Sometimes, we want to do additional clean up. For example, the EEPROM emulation libraries (EpoxyEepromAvr or EpoxyEepromEsp) will create a file in the current directory named epoxyeepromdata which stores the content of the emulated EEPROM. To remove such extra files, we can create a new Makefile target that performs the clean up, and add the name of the target to MORE_CLEAN.

For example, we create a target named more_clean to perform the extra clean up, and tell the clean target to depend on more_clean target using the MORE_CLEAN variable:

MORE_CLEAN := more_clean
APP_NAME := {name of project}
ARDUINO_LIBS := {list of dependent Arduino libraries}
include {path/to/EpoxyDuino.mk}

more_clean:
    rm -f epoxyeepromdata

Additional Dependencies

Sometimes the *.ino file depends on additional header files within the same directory. When these header files are modified, the *.ino file must be recompiled. These additional header files can be listed in the DEPS variable:

DEPS := header1.h header2.h
...
include {path/to/EpoxyDuino.mk}

Generated Source Code

If a source file is generated dynamically through a code generation script, and the source file is not checked into the repository because it is too dynamic, then you can include the generated files using the GENERATED and the OBJS variables.

First add the list of generated files *.cpp or *.c to the GENERATED variable. Then add the corresponding *.o files to the OBJS variable, like this:

GENERATED := foo.cpp bar.cpp
OBJS := foo.o bar.o
APP_NAME := {name of project}
ARDUINO_LIBS := {list of dependent Arduino libraries}
include {path/to/EpoxyDuino.mk}

foo.cpp: foo.h generate_foo.sh
    ./generate_foo.sh # creates 'foo.cpp'

bar.cpp: bar.h generate_bar.sh
    ./generate_bar.sh # creates 'bar.cpp'

...

The *.o files in OJBS are passed to the linker when the app.out binary file is created.

The GENERATED is not strictly required, since the default rules already know how to compile the *.o files from the *.cpp or *.c files. The primary effect of GENERATED currently is to cause the generated files to be removed when make clean is called.

Alternate Arduino Core

This is very advanced. The Arduino ecosystem supports different hardware processors, architectures, and platforms. The software environment for a specific hardware environment is called a "Core". By default, the environment provided by EpoxyDuino resembles the AVR Core most closely because a lot of the API emulation code was borrowed from the AVR Core.

There may be situations where an Arduino program is specifically meant to run under a hardware platform other than an AVR processor, for example, the ESP8266 Core. EpoxyDuino provides the ability substitute a different Arduino API Core through 2 Makefile variables:

  • EPOXY_CORE
  • EPOXY_CORE_PATH

EPOXY_CORE

The EPOXY_CORE Makefile variable defines the C-preprocessor macro which will be defined through the -D flag through -D $(EPOXY_CORE).

There are currently 2 valid options for this Makefile variable:

  • EPOXY_CORE_AVR (default)
    • Causes Arduino.h to emulate the Arduino AVR Core.
  • EPOXY_CORE_ESP8266
    • Causes Arduino.h to emulate the ESP8266 Core.

For example, setting the following in the Makefile:

EPOXY_CORE := EPOXY_CORE_ESP8266

causes the make command to pass the -D EPOXY_CORE_ESP8266 flag to the compiler, which will activate any code that is guarded by:

#if defined(EPOXY_CORE_ESP8266)
  ...
#endif

Note that:

  • EPOXY_CORE_AVR does not define the ARDUINO_ARCH_AVR macro,
  • EPOXY_CORE_ESP8266 does not define the ESP8266 or the ARDUINO_ARCH_ESP8266 macros.

This is because EpoxyDuino cannot provide perfect emulation of all the classes and APIs of the AVR, the ESP8266, or any other third party cores. So defining these macros would break too much code. The developer must carefully evaluate whether a #if defined(EXPOXY_CORE_ESP8266) should be enabled for code that is guarded by #if defined(ESP8266).

EPOXY_CORE_PATH

If the EPOXY_CORE make variable is insufficient (e.g. because the appropriate changes have not been incorporated into $(EPOXY_DUINO_DIR)/cores/epoxy/), then the EPOXY_CORE_PATH provides an even bigger hammer. It defines the full-path to the Arduino Core API files.

By default, this is set to $(EPOXY_DUINO_DIR)/cores/epoxy. You can create your own set of Arduino API files in a directory of your choosing, and set this make variable to point to these custom files:

EPOXY_CORE_PATH := {my_own_directory}/cores/mycore

PlatformIO

The library.json file supports PlaformIO in Native mode. It was added in PR#31 (thanks @lopsided98). However, this functionality is unsupported. If it becomes broken in the future, please send me a PR to fix it.

Command Line Flags and Arguments

The standard Arduino environment does not provide command line arguments, since a microcontroller does not normally provide a command line environment. When an Arduino application is compiled Using EpoxyDuino, the Unix command line parameters (argc and argv) become available through 2 global variables:

  • extern int epoxy_argc
  • extern const char* const* epoxy_argv

The examples/CommandLine program contains a basic command line parser which can be copied and customized for different applications:

$ ./CommandLine.out --help
Usage: ./CommandLine.out [--help|-h] [-s] [--include word] [--] [words ...]

$ ./CommandLine.out one two
arg: one
arg: two

$ ./CommandLine.out -s
flag: -s

$ ./CommandLine.out --include inc one two
flag: --include inc
arg: one
arg: two

$ ./CommandLine.out --include inc -- -one two
flag: --include inc
arg: -one
arg: two

$ ./CommandLine.out -a
Unknonwn flag '-a'
Usage: ./CommandLine.out [--help|-h] [-s] [--include word] [--] [words ...]

A more advanced example can be seen in AUnit/TestRunner.cpp.

Termination

A program running on a microcontroller will never terminate. But the EpoxyDuino version of that program running on the desktop may wish to do so. The recommended way to terminate is the following:

#ifdef EPOXY_DUINO
exit(0);
#endif

The exit handlers in EpoxyDuino will try to clean up the various terminal configurations into a sane state.

You should always be able to force the termination an EpoxyDuino program by hitting Ctrl-C.

Debugging

A huge benefit of compiling Arduino programs using EpoxyDuino is that all the debugging tools in a Unix environment become automatically available. For example:

I am not an expert on any of these sanitizers, and I have not enabled them by default in the EpoxyDuino.mk file. But you have the capability to add them to your Makefile through the EXTRA_CXXFLAGS variable.

Below are some things that I have found useful in my own limited experience.

Valgrind

I have found the Valgrind tool quite helpful in tracking down Segmentation Fault crashes. Here is a quick start:

  1. Compile your program using the -g flag.
    • This is not strictly necessary but this will allow Valgrind to print line numbers to the source code in the stack trace.
    • Two ways:
      • Pass the pass through the command line: $ make EXTRA_CXXFLAGS=-g
      • Edit the Makefile and add a EXTRA_CXXFLAGS = -g directive near the top of the file.
  2. Run the program under the valgrind program.
    • Valgrind has tons of options and flags. Here are the flags that I use (don't remember where I got them):
      • $ alias val='valgrind --tool=memcheck --leak-check=yes --show-reachable=yes --num-callers=20 --track-fds=yes'
      • $ val ./MyProgram.out

When the program crashes because of a nullptr dereference, Valgrind will show exactly where that happened in the source code.

Mock digitalRead() digitalWrite()

EpoxyDuino is not meant to simulate the actual hardware. By default, the digitalRead() and digitalWrite() functions are just stubs which don't do anything. However for testing purposes, it is sometimes useful to be able to control the values returned by digitalRead(), or to read back the value written by digitalWrite(). Two functions have been added to EpoxyDuino to allow this mocking.

  • void digitalReadValue(uint8_t pin, uint8_t val)
    • Sets the value returned by the subsequent digitalRead(pin) to val.
  • uint8_t digitalWriteValue(uint8_t pin)
    • Returns the value of the most recent digitalWrite(pin, val).

digitalReadValue()

The digitalReadValue(pin, val) function sets the value that will be returned by the next digitalRead(pin). Here is an example of how this can be used:

#include <Arduino.h>

...
const uint8_t PIN = 8;

void something() {
  uint8_t val = digitalRead(PIN); // val == 0

#if defined(EPOXY_DUINO)
  digitalReadValue(PIN, 1);
#endif
  val = digitalRead(PIN); // val == 1

#if defined(EPOXY_DUINO)
  digitalReadValue(PIN, 0);
#endif
  val = digitalRead(PIN); // val == 0
}

The #if defined(EPOXY_DUINO) is recommended because digitalReadValue() is not a standard Arduino function. It is defined only in EpoxyDuino.

The pin parameter should satisfy 0 <= pin < 32. If pin >= 32, then digitalReadValue() is a no-op and the corresponding digitalRead(pin) will always return 0.

digitalWriteValue()

The digitalWriteValue(pin) function returns the value that was written by the most recent digitalWrite(pin, val). Here is an example of how this can be used:

#include <Arduino.h>

...
const uint8_t PIN = 9;

void something() {
  digitalWrite(PIN, 0);

#if defined(EPOXY_DUINO)
  uint8_t val = digitalWriteValue(PIN);
  // val should be 0
#endif

  digitalWrite(PIN, 1);

#if defined(EPOXY_DUINO)
  uint8_t val = digitalWriteValue(PIN);
  // val should be 1
#endif
}

The #if defined(EPOXY_DUINO) is recommended because digitalWriteValue() is not a standard Arduino function. It is defined only in EpoxyDuino.

The pin parameter should satisfy 0 <= pin < 32. If pin >= 32, then digitalWriteValue() always return 0.

Supported Arduino Features

Arduino Macros

The following C-preprocessor macros are defined:

  • ARDUINO=100
    • Indicates compilation under Arduino.
  • EPOXY_DUINO
    • Indicates compilation under EpoxyDuino
  • UNIX_HOST_DUINO
    • For backwards compatibility with previous version of EpoxyDuino which was named UnixHostDuino.
  • EPOXY_CORE_AVR
    • Defined when the Makefile variable EPOXY_CORE is set to ARDUINO_ARCH_AVR.
    • This is the default.
  • EPOXY_CORE_ESP8266
    • Defined when the Makefile variable EPOXY_CORE is set to ARDUINO_ARCH_ESP8266.

The following are not defined. Many third party libraries tend to break with those defined because EpoxyDuino does not emulate those environments perfectly:

  • ARDUINO_ARCH_AVR
  • ARDUINO_ARCH_ESP8266
  • ARDUINO_ARCH_ESP32
  • ESP8266
  • ESP32

Arduino Functions

The following is an incomplete list of Arduino functions and features which are implemented:

  • Arduino.h
    • setup(), loop()
    • delay(), yield(), delayMicroSeconds()
    • millis(), micros()
    • digitalWrite(), digitalRead(), pinMode() (empty stubs)
    • analogRead(), analogWrite() (empty stubs)
    • pulseIn(), pulseInLong(), shiftIn(), shiftOut() (empty stubs)
    • min(), max(), abs(), round(), etc
    • bit(), bitRead(), bitSet(), bitClear(), bitWrite()
    • random(), randomSeed(), map()
    • makeWord()
    • F_CPU, clockCyclesPerMicrosecond(), clockCyclesToMicroseconds(), microsecondsToClockCycles()
    • HIGH, LOW, INPUT, OUTPUT, INPUT_PULLUP
    • I2C and SPI pins: SS, MOSI, MISO, SCK, SDA, SCL
    • typedefs: boolean, byte, word
  • StdioSerial.h
    • Serial.print(), Serial.println(), Serial.write()
    • Serial.read(), Serial.peek(), Serial.available()
    • SERIAL_PORT_MONITOR
  • WString.h
    • class String
    • class __FlashStringHelper, F(), FPSTR()
  • Print.h
    • class Print, class Printable
    • Print.printf() - extended function supported by some Arduino compatible microcontrollers
  • pgmspace.h
    • pgm_read_byte(), pgm_read_word(), pgm_read_dword(), pgm_read_float(), pgm_read_ptr()
    • strlen_P(), strcat_P(), strcpy_P(), strncpy_P(), strcmp_P(), strncmp_P(), strcasecmp_P(), strchr_P(), strrchr_P(), strstr_P()
    • memcpy_P(), memcmp_P(), vsnprintf_P()
    • PROGMEM, PGM_P, PGM_VOID_P, PSTR()
  • IPAddress.h
    • IPAddress class
  • WCharacter.h
    • isAlpha(), isAscii(), etc.
    • toLowerCase(), toUpperCase(), etc
  • Wire.h (stub implementation)
  • SPI.h (stub implementation)

See Arduino.h for the latest list. Most of the header files included by this Arduino.h file were copied and modified from the arduino:avr core, v1.8.2 or v1.8.3. A number of tweaks have been made to support slight variations in the API of other platforms, particularly the ESP8266 v2.7.4 and ESP32 v1.0.6 cores.

The Print::printf() function is an extension to the Print class that is provided by many Arduino-compatible microcontrollers (but not the AVR controllers). It is implemented here for convenience. The size of the internal buffer is 250 characters, which can be changed by changing the PRINTF_BUFFER_SIZE parameter if needed.

Serial Port Emulation

The Serial object is an instance of the StdioSerial class which emulates the Serial port using the STDIN and STDOUT of the Unix system. Serial.print() sends the output to the STDOUT and Serial.read() reads from the STDIN.

The interaction with the Unix tty device is complicated, and I am not entirely sure that I have implemented things properly. See Entering raw mode for in-depth details. The following is a quick summary of how this is implemented under EpoxyDuino.

The STDOUT remains mostly in normal mode. In particular, ONLCR mode is enabled, which translates \n (NL) to \r\n (CR-NL). This allows the program to print a line of string terminating in just \n (e.g. in a printf() function) and the Unix tty device will automatically add the \r (CR) to start the next line at the left. (Interestingly, the Print.println() method prints \r\n, which gets translated into \r\r\n by the terminal, which still does the correct thing. The extra \r does not do any harm.)

The STDIN is put into "raw" mode to avoid blocking the loop() function while waiting for input from the keyboard. It also allows ICRNL and INLCR which flips the mapping of \r and \n from the keyboard. That's because normally, the "Enter" or "Return" key transmits a \r, but internally, most string processing code wants to see a line terminated by \n instead. This is convenient because when the \n is printed back to the screen, it becomes translated into \r\n, which is what most people expect is the correct behavior.

The ISIG option on the tty device is enabled. This allows the usual Unix signals to be active, such as Ctrl-C to quit the program, or Ctrl-Z to suspend the program. But this convenience means that the Arduino program running under EpoxyDuino will never receive a control character through the Serial.read() function. The advantages of having normal Unix signals seemed worth the trade-off.

Unix Line Mode

The Print class in the Arduino API implements the Print::println() function by printing the DOS line terminator characters \r\n. This decision make sense when the serial port of the microcontroller is connected to a serial terminal, which requires a \r\n at the end of each line to render the text properly.

But when the Arduino application is executed on Linux machine, and the output is redirected into a file, the \r\n is not consistent with the Unix convention of using only a single \n to terminate each line. This causes the file to be interpreted as a DOS-formatted file. Usually the DOS formatted file can be processed without problems by other Linux programs and scripts, but sometimes the extra \r\n causes problems, especially when mixed with a Serial.printf() function using a single \n.

EpoxyDuino provides a mechanism to configure the line termination convention for a given application by providing 2 additional methods to its Print class:

class Print {
  public:
    // Use DOS line termination. This is the default.
    void setLineModeNormal();

    // Use Unix line termination.
    void setLineModeUnix();

    ...
};

When an Arduino application is executed on a Linux machine using EpoxyDuino, you can configure the Serial object in the *.ino file to use the Unix convention like this:

void setup() {
#if ! defined(EPOXY_DUINO)
  delay(1000); // wait to prevent garbage on Serial
#endif

  Serial.begin(115200);
  while (!Serial); // Leonardo/Micro

#if defined(EPOXY_DUINO)
  Serial.setLineModeUnix();
#endif
}

Why isn't setLineModeUnix() simply made to be the default on EpoxyDuino? Because people write AUnit unit tests which they expect will pass on both the microcontroller and on EpoxyDuino:

#include <Arduino.h>
#include <AUnit.h>
#include <AceCommon.h> // PrintStr<N>
...

static void sayHello(Print& printer) {
  printer.println("hello");
}

test(myTest) {
  PrintStr<200> observed;
  sayHello(observed);
  assertEqual(observed.cstr(), "hello\r\n");
}

Enable Terminal Echo

By default, the stdin of the terminal is set to NOECHO mode for consistency with the actual serial port of an Arduino microcontroller. However when running a command line utility on a Unix terminal emulator using EpoxyDuino, it is often useful to enable echoing so that the characters being typed are visible.

To enable echoing, call the enableTerminalEcho() function from the global setup():

void setup() {
  ...

#if defined(EPOXY_DUINO)
  enableTerminalEcho();
#endif

  ...
}

Output to STDERR

By default, the Serial instance sends its output to the STDOUT (file descriptor STDOUT_FILENO which is always 1). We can override that to send the output to STDERR (file descriptor STDERR_FILENO) using the StdioSerial::setOutputFileDescriptor(int fd) method:

Serial.println("This goes to STDOUT");
Serial.setOutputFileDescriptor(STDERR_FILENO);
Serial.println("This goes to STDERR");

Another way to override the output file descriptor of the Serial instance is to override the SERIAL_OUTPUT_FILENO macro on the command line during compiling. The compiler c++ or g++ allows the -D flag like this:

$ c++ -D SERIAL_OUTPUT_FILENO=2 file.cpp ...

When using make, the flag can be passed into the compiler like this:

$ make EXTRA_CPPFLAGS='-D SERIAL_OUTPUT_FILENO=2'

Multiple Serial Ports

By default, a default instance of StdioSerial class is created and named Serial, which matches the behavior of the Arduino programming framework on actual microcontrollers where a single serial port is provided by default.

Some microcontrollers provide multiple serial ports, often called Serial1 or Serial2. We can emulate that in EpoxyDuino by creating additional instances of StdioSerial. The following creates a Serial1 instance bound to STDOUT, and another Serial2 instance bound to STDERR:

#ifdef EPOXY_DUINO
StdioSerial Serial1(STDOUT_FILENO);
StdioSerial Serial2(STDERR_FILENO);
#endif
...
void someFunction() {
    Serial1.println("Print to STDOUT");
    Serial2.println("Print to STDERR");
    ...
}

See examples/StdioSerialMultiple for details.

Shell Redirection

This is probably a good place to remind Unix users that shell redirection is available on specific file descriptors using the N> syntax. Suppose we change the above example to use 3 and 4 instead, like this:

#ifdef EPOXY_DUINO
StdioSerial Serial1(3);
StdioSerial Serial2(4);
#endif
...
void someFunction() {
    Serial1.println("Print to 3");
    Serial2.println("Print to 4");
    ...
}

We can run the executable in the bash(1) shell like this:

$ ./StdioSerialMultiple.out 3> stream3.txt 4> stream4.txt

We then get 2 files:

  • stream3.txt contains the string "Print to 3", and
  • stream4.txt contains the string "Print to 4".

Libraries and Mocks

The Arduino ecosystem provides thousands of libraries that can be used to extend the functionality of an Arduino application. Some of these libraries will work perfectly fine with EpoxyDuino, some will not. It is difficult to categorize these libraries in a sensible way in the context of EpoxyDuino, but here is my current attempt:

  • Inherently Compatible Libraries:
    • Libraries that are mostly algorithmic often have limited dependency on low-level Arduino API (e.g. millis(), micros(), delay(), F()).
    • If these have been written to be cross-platform across different Arduino hardware, then these should also automatically work under EpoxyDuino with little or no modifications.
  • Emulation Libraries.
    • Libraries for EpoxyDuino written specifically to emulate the functionality of an Arduino library, for example, using the filesystem or network layer.
  • Mock or Stub Libraries
    • Libraries which implement the API of the target library, but don't implement the functionality of the library.
    • These are useful for Continuous Integration workflows to verify that a program or library compiles with EpoxyDuino.
    • The assumption is that if something compiles under EpoxyDuino, it probably compiles under an actual Arduino environment.

These 3 types are described in more detail below.

Inherently Compatible Libraries

Almost all libraries that I write will be inherently compatible with EpoxyDuino because EpoxyDuino is what I use to develop and test my libraries. For example, the following should compile using EpoxyDuino:

There are probably many other 3rd party libraries which are inherently compatible with EpoxyDuino but we won't know until we try to compile them under EpoxyDuino. If there are compile-time problems, it may be possible that only a small set of tweaks are required to make it work. Often, the fixes are similar to the changes needed to make the library cross-compatible with other Arduino platforms.

Emulation Libraries

These libraries are designed partially or fully emulate the functionality a particular Arduino library in the Unix-like desktop environment using EpoxyDuino. I have provided 3 such libraries within the EpoxyDuino project:

Since the desktop environment already has a working network stack, I hope to make create additional network libraries (HTTP client, HTTP Server, MQTT client, etc) for EpoxyDuino, so that even more of the Arduino development can be done on the Linux/MacOS host.

Mock Libraries

Mock libraries are designed to run under EpoxyDuino and provide non-working API stubs of the target library. These libraries are useful to verify that a program compiles, but they do not allow us to actually verify that the library works as intended. This limitation may be sufficient for Continuous Integration purposes.

  • Wire
    • The <Wire.h> header file is provided automatically by the <Arduino.h> file in EpoxyDuino. No additional library needs to be added to the ARDUINO_LIBS variable in the Makefile.
    • It provides only mock functions of the actually Wire library that is provided by real Arduino frameworks.
    • This was added very early in the development of EpoxyDuino so that I could compile some of my programs. I don't think I realized at the time that Wire is a separate (but built-in) library. In retrospect, it may have been better to split this file into a separate mock library.
  • SPI
    • The <SPI.h> header file was contributed recently (see #18 and #19) and is included automatically by the <Arduino.h> file in EpoxyDuino.
    • It follows the same pattern as Wire, the header file provides only mock functions of the actual SPI library.
  • EpoxyMockDigitalWriteFast
  • EpoxyMockTimerOne
  • EpoxyMockFastLED
  • EpoxyMockSTM32RTC
  • EspMock (https://github.com/hsaturn/EspMock)
    • This is a separate project that provides various mocks for functions and libraries included with the ESP8266 and the ESP32 processors.
    • It is not an Arduino library, so it needs to be installed using a manual git clone.

System Requirements

Tier 1: Fully Supported

The following environments are tested on each release of EpoxyDuino.

  • Ubuntu 20.04.4 LTS
    • g++ (Ubuntu 9.4.0-1ubuntu1~20.04.1) 9.4.0
    • clang++ version 10.0.0-4ubuntu1
    • GNU Make 4.2.1

Tier 2: Best Effort

The following environments are supported on a best-effort basis because I don't test them as often.

  • MacOS 11.6.7 (Big Sur)
    • clang++
      • Apple clang version 13.0.0 (clang-1300.0.29.30)
      • Target: x86_64-apple-darwin20.6.0
    • GNU Make 3.81
    • (Big Sur is the latest MacOS that I am able to test.)
  • Raspbian GNU/Linux 10 (buster)
    • On Raspberry Pi Model 3B
    • g++ (Raspbian 8.3.0-6+rpi1) 8.3.0
    • GNU Make 4.2.1
  • FreeBSD 12.2
    • c++: FreeBSD clang version 10.0.1
    • gmake: GNU Make 4.3
      • Install using $ pkg install gmake
      • You can type gmake instead of make, or
      • Create a shell alias, or
      • Create a symlink in ~/bin.

Tier 3: Should Work

The following environments are older OS environments which worked with previous versions of EpoxyDuino. But I am not able to validate them against the latest EpoxyDuino release because I no longer use these older environments.

  • Ubuntu 18.04 LTS
    • g++ (Ubuntu 7.5.0-3ubuntu1~18.04) 7.5.0
    • clang++ 8.0.0-3~ubuntu18.04.2
    • clang++ 6.0.0-1ubuntu2
    • GNU Make 4.1
  • MacOS 10.14.6 (Mojave)
    • Apple clang version 11.0.0 (clang-1100.0.33.17)
    • GNU Make 3.81
  • MacOS 10.14.5 (Mojave)
    • clang++ Apple LLVM version 10.0.1
    • GNU Make 3.81

License

MIT License

Bugs and Limitations

  • There is no formal specification of the "Arduino API" that I am aware of.
    • The reference documentation at https://www.arduino.cc/reference/ may be good enough for beginners to blink a few LED lights, but it is not sufficient to build an API emulator on a Linux machine.
    • The version of the Arduino API implemented in this library has been reverse engineered and inferred from ArduinoCore-avr, either v1.8.2 and v1.8.3 (I cannot remember).
    • Each third party Arduino-compatible platform (e.g. STM32, ESP8266, ESP32) has implemented a slightly different version of the "Arduino API".
    • EpoxyDuino does not support the idiosyncrasies of all of these different Arduino platforms.
    • A few features relevant to the ESP8266 and ESP32 platforms can be activated by setting EPOXY_CORE := EPOXY_CORE_ESP8266 in the Makefile. See Alternate Arduino Core.
  • There is yet another version of the "Arduino API" described by ArduinoCore-API.
    • Some Arduino-branded microcontrollers have been migrated to this new API (e.g. Nano Every, MKR1000, Nano 33 IoT).
    • The new Arduino API has a number of backwards incompatible changes to the old Arduino API.
    • EpoxyDuino does not support this new Arduino API.
  • The Arduino API on a microcontroller automatically provides a main() function that calls the global setup() function, then calls the global loop() function forever, as fast as possible.
    • The EpoxyDuino version of main() calls loop() with a delay of 1 ms per iteration. Without the 1 ms delay, the application consumes 100% of CPU time on the host computer.
    • This means that the loop() function is called at a maximum frequency of 1000 Hz.
  • The Serial port emulation provided by StdioSerial may be buggy or behave in non-intuitive ways.
    • When the application is executed without input or output redirection, the stdin is put into "raw" mode.
    • If either the input or output is redirected (e.g. output redirected to a file), then the stdin remains in normal Unix "cooked" mode.
    • This allows the Arduino program to be piped into a screen pager (e.g. less(1), while allowing the less(1) program to support its normal keyboard control keys.
    • The stdout is wired directly into the POSIX write() function, which is unbuffered. This may cause performance problems when generating a lot of output.
  • The compiler used to compile the microcontroller binary may be significantly different than the compiler used on the host Unix computer, even if they are both g++.
    • I am not sure that I have migrated all the relevant and important compiler flags from the microcontroller environment (AVR, ESP8266, etc.) to the EpoxyDuino environment.
  • The sizeof(int) is 4 on EpoxyDuino as defined by C++ compilers on Unix environments.
    • This may cause problems with non-portable Arduino code that assumes that sizeof(int) == 2 which is true only on 8-bit AVR processors used by older Arduino boards. All other Arduino-compatible microcontrollers (e.g. ESP8266, ESP32, SAMD21, SAMD51) use 32-bit processors whose C++ compilers define sizeof(int) == 4.
    • Non-portable code can be converted into portable code by changing the short, int, and long types into types with explicit sizes such as int16_t, uint16_t, int32_t, uint32_t, and so on.

Feedback and Support

If you have any questions, comments, or feature requests for this library, please use the GitHub Discussions for this project. If you have bug reports, please file a ticket in GitHub Issues. Feature requests should go into Discussions first because they often have alternative solutions which are useful to remain visible, instead of disappearing from the default view of the Issue tracker after the ticket is closed.

Please refrain from emailing me directly unless the content is sensitive. The problem with email is that I cannot reference the email conversation when other people ask similar questions later.

Authors

  • Created by Brian T. Park ([email protected]).
  • Support for using as library, by making main() a weak reference, by Max Prokhorov (@mcspr), see PR#6.
  • Add delayMicroSeconds(), WCharacter.h, and stub implementations of IPAddress.h, SPI.h, by Erik Tideman (@ramboerik), see PR#18.
  • Add memcpy_P() and vsnprintf_P() by Paul m. p. P. (@pmp-p), PR#28.
  • Support PlatformIO native mode, by Ben Wolsieffer (@lopsided98), see PR#31.
  • Move stdin processing to yield() by Ben Wolsieffer (@lopsided98), see PR#32.
  • Simplify StdioSerial by Bernhard (@felias-fogg), Issue#43.
  • Add digitalReadValue(pin, val) to control the return value of digitalRead(pin) by @CaioPellicani. See PR#61.
  • Add tone() and noTone() stubs, by @kwisii in PR#69.
  • Add uint8_t digitalWriteValue(pin) by @kwisii in PR#68.
  • Add memcmp_P() by @dawidchyrzynski in PR#71.
  • Add additional ESP functions by @EricLauber in PR#71.

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Compile and run Arduino programs natively on Linux, MacOS and FreeBSD.

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